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| Understanding Culture: Its Meaning, Problems, and Sociological Significance |
In this essay, I aim to explore the multifaceted concept of culture—its definition, its problems, and its significance within sociology. I will examine various subcultures, including youth, family, and crime cultures, and discuss why culture is central to sociological inquiry. Additionally, I will reflect on the obligations sociologists have in studying culture and conclude with an overview of how society has evolved, necessitating ongoing cultural investigation.
What Is Culture?
Culture is a complex and dynamic concept. Sociologists often define it as “designs for living”: the values, beliefs, behaviours, practices, and material objects that constitute a people's way of life. It is both a bridge to the past and a guide to the future—a toolbox of solutions to everyday problems.
Anthropologist Clifford Geertz offered a profound interpretation:
“Believing, with Max Weber, that man is an animal suspended in webs of significance he himself has spun, I take culture to be those webs, and the analysis of it to be therefore not an experimental science in search of law but an interpretative one in search for meaning.” (Geertz, 1995:5)
Culture encompasses both non-material and material dimensions. Non-material culture refers to the intangible world of ideas—beliefs, values, norms—while material culture includes tangible creations such as art, technology, and architecture. Together, they shape human experience and identity. As sociologist John Macionis notes, “Only humans generate and rely on culture rather than instinct to ensure the survival of their kind.” (Macionis, 2008)
Cristina De Rossi, an anthropologist at Barnet and Southgate College, expands this view:
“Culture encompasses religion, food, what we wear, how we wear it, our language, marriage, music, what we believe is right or wrong, how we sit at the table, how we greet visitors, how we behave with loved ones, and a million other things.”
The Centre for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition defines culture as shared patterns of behaviours, interactions, cognitive constructs, and understandings learned through socialisation. It fosters group identity through unique social patterns.
Etymologically, the word “culture” derives from the Latin colere, meaning to tend, cultivate, or nurture—emphasising its role in fostering growth.
The Problems of Culture
One of the challenges in understanding culture is its vast scope. The idea of culture as “an entire way of life” touches nearly every aspect of sociology. From weddings and family gatherings to political ideologies and digital behaviour, cultural norms shape how people act and interact.
However, no cultural trait is “natural.” While many view their way of life as universal, culture is a human construct—diverse, evolving, and historically contingent. Unlike animals, whose behaviour is largely guided by instinct, humans create and adapt culture to suit their collective needs.
This diversity presents a problem for sociologists: how to refine and explain the concept of culture in a way that captures its complexity without losing analytical clarity.
Subcultures and Countercultures
To better understand cultural variation, sociologists examine subcultures—distinct cultural groups within a larger society. These include youth cultures, family structures, and crime cultures. Subcultures often reflect the values and practices of subordinate classes and can challenge dominant cultural norms.
In the 1960s, subcultures like the ‘mods’, ‘teds’, and ‘skinheads’ emerged as countercultures, resisting mainstream values. Marxist theorists viewed these subcultures as expressions of class resistance, highlighting tensions between dominant and subordinate groups.
This analysis situates culture within the framework of class relationships in capitalist societies. It reveals how cultural practices can both reinforce and challenge social structures. However, this approach sometimes overlooks other dimensions of inequality, such as gender, ethnicity, and nationality, which also shape cultural conflict.
Culture’s Importance to Sociology
Culture is foundational to sociology. It influences identity, behaviour, and social organisation. Sociologists study how individuals fit into cultures that produce them and how they, in turn, maintain and recreate those cultures over time.
The production of culture is a collective endeavour—shaped by the interrelated efforts of all members of society. Our sense of self, or identity, is deeply tied to cultural expectations and norms.
Sociologists also face philosophical and sociological challenges in studying culture. One issue is the unified character of cultural foundations in nation-states, especially in the context of multiculturalism and postmodernism. Philosopher Onora O’Neill, in her essay Practices of Toleration, warns of cultural risks and the hazards of a fragmented communications environment.
Recent sociological approaches to risk, such as Ulrich Beck’s ecological theory, attempt to address cultural hazards. However, while environmental risks can be measured with some neutrality, cultural risks involve moral judgment and are harder to quantify.
Cultural Evolution and Sociological Inquiry
Culture is not static—it evolves. For example, in the 1950s, the ideal family structure was a married couple with children. Today, single-parent families are more common, reflecting broader social changes. Such shifts illustrate the dynamic nature of culture and the need for sociologists to investigate why and how these changes occur.
Sociologists must engage with both classical and contemporary theories to understand cultural transformations. By doing so, they can trace the lineage of sociological thought and challenge outdated assumptions.
Types of Culture: A Comparative Overview
Culture varies widely across regions, shaped by history, geography, language, religion, and social organisation. Below is a concise overview of major cultural types, each illustrated with defining features and examples.
1. Western Culture
Definition: Rooted in the Greco-Roman classical period and shaped by Christianity from the 14th century onward, Western culture encompasses the traditions of Europe and regions influenced by European migration, such as the United States and Australia.
Key Influences:
Ethnic and linguistic roots: Latin, Celtic, Germanic, and Hellenic groups.Philosophical foundations: Rationalism, individualism, and secular governance.
Examples:
Democratic institutions in the U.S. and Europe.Renaissance art and Enlightenment thought.
Modern consumer culture and capitalist economies.
2. Eastern Culture
Definition: Eastern culture refers to the societal norms of East Asia (China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam) and the Indian subcontinent. It is deeply influenced by religious philosophies and agrarian traditions, particularly rice cultivation.
Key Features:
Integration of religion and daily life (e.g., Confucianism, Hinduism, Buddhism).Emphasis on collectivism, filial piety, and harmony.
Examples:
Japanese tea ceremonies and Zen aesthetics.Indian caste system and spiritual pluralism.
Chinese Confucian ethics in governance and education.
3. Latin Culture
Definition: Latin culture spans Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking countries in Central and South America, as well as Mexico. It originates from Romance languages and Iberian colonial influence.
Key Influences:
Linguistic heritage from Latin (Spanish, Portuguese).Catholicism and colonial legacies.
Examples:
Carnival celebrations in Brazil.Family-centred social structures in Mexico.
Latin American literature (e.g., Gabriel GarcÃa Márquez’s magical realism).
4. Middle Eastern Culture
Definition: Encompassing approximately 20 countries, Middle Eastern culture is unified by shared religious heritage and the Arabic language, though dialects vary widely.
Key Features:
Birthplace of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.Strong tribal and kinship networks.
Examples:
Islamic architecture (e.g., mosques in Iran and Turkey).Arabic calligraphy and poetry.
Religious observances like Ramadan and Hajj.
5. African Culture
Definition: Africa, the cradle of human civilisation, is home to immense cultural diversity across 54 countries. It is divided into North Africa (closely tied to the Middle East) and Sub-Saharan Africa (distinct in language, art, and social systems).
Key Features:
Over 300 ethnic groups in Nigeria alone.Oral traditions, music, and communal living.
Examples:
Yoruba festivals and drumming traditions.Maasai pastoral culture in Kenya and Tanzania.
Kente cloth weaving in Ghana.
6. Cultural Fluidity and Change
Observation: Culture is not static. It evolves with globalisation, technological advancement, and intercultural exchange. As Cristina De Rossi notes, “Culture is essentially fluid and constantly in motion.”
Contemporary Challenges:
Conflicts over religion, ethnicity, and ethics.Hybrid identities in multicultural societies.
Preservation Efforts:
UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention (1972) protects cultural monuments, sites, and practices.Examples include the Taj Mahal (India), Machu Picchu (Peru), and Timbuktu manuscripts (Mali).
Conclusion
Culture is the lifeblood of sociology. It encompasses everything from language and religion to social habits and artistic expression. It shapes identity, behaviour, and social structure. As society evolves, so too does culture—requiring sociologists to continuously refine their understanding and methods of inquiry.
In studying culture, sociologists not only interpret the present but also engage in a dialogue with the past and envision possibilities for the future. Culture is not merely a subject of study—it is the very medium through which human life unfolds.
References
Fulcher, J. & Scott, J. (2007). Sociology (3rd ed.). Oxford University Press.Inglis, D. & Hughson, J. Introduction: Sociology and Culture.
Kidd, W. Culture and Identity: A Skills-Based Approach.
Macionis, J. & Plummer, K. (2008). Sociology: A Global Introduction (4th ed.).
Stevenson, N. (2001). Culture and Citizenship. London: Sage Publications.
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