Understanding the Concept of Adivasi / Adiwasi / Scheduled Tribe
Topic: Scheduled Tribe
Semester: Second
Name of the Paper: Sociology of India
Course Code: (SOC MJC 202)
Unit 3: (b) Tribal Profile and Location: Munda, Santhal, Tharu
Course (Lecture Suitable for): Sociology, Social Work, Political Science
Lecture Title: Understanding the Scheduled Tribe
Lecture Prepared by
Dr Anil Kumar
Assistant Professor of Sociology
Patna Women’s College, Autonomous
Introduction
This lecture is intended to provide conceptual clarity on the Indian Community known as Adivasi or Adiwasi, or constitutionally referred to as the Scheduled Tribe in India. Often, we encounter misinformation, prejudice, bias, and stereotypes about other communities. It is there in society because of our socialisation. Sometimes, more than society, the individual is more responsible for these thoughts, ideas and practices. This is not a big lecture, but I will provide clarity on some core issues here.
If something is a mission or other items that need to be added, please let us know.
This is a working lecture, not yet concluded ...
Different Perspectives of the Scheduled Tribe
Literary Perspectives: Also known as Adivasi/Adiwasi, which means original or early habitat of the nation.
Indian Perspectives: It is characterised in terms of Adivasi, which means original or early habitat, not a Tribe. In Western countries, the term Tribe were used in a derogatory way to denote the supremacy of White Skin. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, the Western Anthropological Theory "tribe" was often incorporated into theories of social evolution, generally denoting a "primitive" or "barbarous" stage of development that predated the "civilised" nation-state.
Constitutional and Legal Perspectives: Basis for determining the Scheduled Caste in India, Simon Commission (1928), and the Government of India Act, 1935, in 1936. (More about it in the later part of this lecture.)
The Scheduled Tribes have generally been regarded as being outside the Hindu fold.
Geographically, these tribes have lived in politically autonomous settlements
in Hilly tracts, dense forests or areas.
By contrast, Hindu groups have lived mainly in the plains.
Unlike the Scheduled Caste, they were not a subservient caste of the Hindu Caste
in traditional India.
In free India, the Constitution has granted a special status to them, which is
similar to the one given to the Scheduled Castes.
Scheduled Tribes were not subject to the laws of Purity and Pollution; they did not face the same psychological and social deprivation as the Scheduled Castes.
Tribe:
Its Other Equivalent Terms and Usage
1) Adiwasi, this is the popular term to identify themselves. It means the old
habitats.
2) Aboriginals by Sir Herbert Hope Risley (1851–1911) was a British ethnographer and colonial administrator, and Harry Verrier Holman Elwin (1902–1964) was a British-born Indian anthropologist and tribal activist. They were prominent figures in Indian anthropology, though from different eras and with contrasting approaches to tribal communities.
3) The Hill Tribe by Sir Jervoise Athelstane Baines CSI FRGS (1847 – 1925). He was an administrator in the Indian Civil Service in British India. He was in charge of the 1891 census. He adjusted the classification system. Note Abbreviation: CSI FRGS is a kind of honour which stands for “Companion of the Order of the Star of India and Fellow of the Royal Geographical Society”. It was used historically as a post-nominal title for individuals who received these honours.
4) Primitive Tribe by Robin Horton (1932 - 2019), an English social anthropologist and philosopher.
5) Backwards Hindu, by Dr. Govind Sadashiv Ghurye (1893–1983), who is also known as the "father of Indian sociology."
6) Indigenous People by the International Labour Organisation (ILO).
7) Girijan, by Mr. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (October 2, 1869 – January 30, 1948)
8) Scheduled Tribe – Currently, the term is widely used for legal purposes by the Constitution of India. The term was originally introduced by the Simon Commission in 1928 as a Scheduled Caste to denote the deprived Caste, Race, and Tribe by and was later used in 1936 by implementing the Government of India Act, 1935, to ensure welfare to the depressed community. "The Government of India (Scheduled Caste) Order, 1936" consists of both the the current Scheduled Cast and the Scheduled Tribes.
Constitutional Journey of the Term Scheduled Tribe
- Term Coined: The term "Scheduled Castes" was first used by the Simon Commission in its report in 1928.
- Legislation: The Government of India Act, 1935, incorporated the reservation of seats for "Depressed Classes" and introduced the term "Scheduled Castes".
- Formal Lists: The actual lists, or "Schedules", of these castes were drawn up and published by provincial governments as "The Gazette of India, June 06, 1936. The Government of India (Scheduled Castes Order, 1936)" in 1936 (and came into force in 1937) to ensure special representation in elections.
- Scheduled Tribes: The term "Scheduled Tribe" was not officially used until the Constitution of India was enacted in 1950, when the communities previously known as "backward tribes" were referred to as Scheduled Tribes.
- * * *
- However, this is also important that the first paragraph of: The Gazette of India, June 06, 1936. The Government of India (Scheduled Castes Order, 1936). At the Court of Buckingham Palace, The 30th day of April 1936, runs as: Whereas by certain provision in the First, Fifth and Sixth Scheduled to the Government of India Act, 1935, His Majesty in Council is empowered to specify the caste, race or tribe or parts of or groups within caste or tribe which are to be treated as the Scheduled Caste for all purpose of those Schedules.
The term “Tribe” and the Indian Constitution
Article 366(25) "Scheduled Tribes" means such tribes or tribal
communities or parts of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as
are deemed under Article 342 to be Scheduled Tribes for the purposes of this
Constitution.
Article 342 (1) The President may with respect to any State or Union territory,
and where it is a State after consultation with the Governor thereof, by public
notification specify the tribes or tribal communities or parts of or groups
within tribes or tribal communities which shall for the purposes of
this Constitution be deemed to be Scheduled Tribes in relation to
that State or Union territory, as the case may be.
TO BE ADDED
What is the purpose of this constitution?
Constitutional Provisions for the Scheduled
Tribe
Union Ministry
The Union Ministry of Tribal Affairs (MoTA) in India was created on October 13, 1999. It was established by bifurcating the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment (formerly the Ministry of Welfare) to provide a more focused and coordinated approach to the integrated socio-economic development of the underprivileged Scheduled Tribes (STs) across the country.National Commission
- Amendment: 89th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2003.
- Effective Date: February 19, 2004, when it came into force.
- New Bodies Created:
- National Commission for Scheduled Castes (NCSC): Under Article 338.
- National Commission for Scheduled Tribes (NCST): Under Article 338A, to monitor safeguards and development for STs.
- Purpose: To address the specific concerns and safeguard the rights of SCs and STs more effectively through dedicated commissions.
Article 15(4) of the Indian Constitution allows the State to make special provisions for the advancement of "socially and educationally backward classes of citizens" or for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), enabling affirmative action like reservations in education and jobs, a crucial clause added by the First Amendment in 1951 to ensure social justice and upliftment for marginalized communities, complementing the general prohibition of discrimination in Article 15(1)
Key Aspects of Article 15(4) in Points
- Purpose: To uplift backward sections of society, ensuring real equality, not just formal equality.
- Origin: Added via the Constitution (First Amendment) Act, 1951 to counter judicial limitations on affirmative action.
- Scope: Authorises special measures for "socially and educationally backward classes" (SEBCs) and SCs/STs, providing a constitutional basis for reservations.
- Relation to Article 15(1): While Article 15(1) prohibits discrimination, 15(4) permits "protective discrimination" or positive action for disadvantaged groups, which is seen as a way to achieve true equality.
Ensuring Representation in Government Jobs under Article 16(4) of the Indian Constitution
- Scope of Reservation: It covers appointments and posts in services under the State (government jobs).
- Beneficiaries: "Backward classes," which include SCs, STs, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs).
- Condition: The provision applies only if these classes are inadequately represented in public services.
- Purpose: To achieve substantive equality and ensure public administration reflects India's diverse population, not just formal equality.
- Article 16(4A), added later, allows reservations in promotions for SCs/STs if they are underrepresented.
- Article 16(4B): Allows carrying forward unfilled reserved vacancies.
- Article 16(6): Introduced by the 103rd Amendment, it provides for up to 10% reservation for Economically Weaker Sections (EWS).
- It balances the ideal of equal opportunity with the reality of deep-rooted social disparities, making equality meaningful for all.
- It represents the State's positive obligation to promote social justice and inclusive governance.
Ensuring Representation in the State Vidhan Sabha under Article 332 of the Indian Constitution
Ensuring Representation in Lok Sabha under Article 330 of the Indian Constitution
Ensuring Representation as an Elected Member and Office Bearer in Local Bodies of Panchayat under Article 243D of the Indian Constitution
Ensuring Representation as an Elected Member and Office Bearer in an Urban Municipality under Article 243T of the Indian Constitution
Self-Governance and Special Rights in the Scheduled Area under the 5th and 6th Schedules of the Constitution
Characteristics of Tribe
Common Territory
Collection of Families
Common Name
Common Language
Common Ancestor
Organisation of Clan (Kabila)
Common Culture
Common Religion
Feeling of Unity
Common Political Organisation
Common Economic Organisation
Simplicity and Self-Sufficiency (This is a Gandhian term)
Endogamous Group
Tribe and Caste Differences
1) Difference in the concept
A tribe is a group of local communities that live in a common area, speak a common dialect and follow a common culture.
Caste denotes endogamous unity with a more or less defined ritual status and some occupational tradition linked to it.
2) Territorial Basis
Tribes typically reside in geographically isolated areas such as hills. (Not absolutely, but
relatively)
Castes are not living in
a geographically isolated area.
3) Religious Basis
It is argued that the religion of the tribe is mostly Animism or Totemism, and that of the caste. The tribe mostly worships nature.
However, caste Hindus believe in God, Sin, etc.
4) The Criterion of Language
Tribes have their dialects.
Caste does not have language (in almost all cases, except for exceptions, and these exceptions are rare and misunderstood with geographical identity, with caste identity)
5) Economy and Occupation
Tribes are relatively primitive.
Castes are relatively
modern.
Clan and Tribe
Clans represent an important type of group which constitutes a part of the
kinship system. A tribal community is often understood as an organisation of
different clans.
A clan has been defined by William P. Scott as “a
unilateral kin group based on either matrilineal or patrilineal descent” in the
Dictionary of Sociology.
Membership of a clan is socially defined in terms of actual or proportional
descent from a common ancestor. This descent is unilineal, derived only through
the male or female line.
Characteristics of the Clan
Clan: An Exogamous Group
Common Ancestor
Unilateral
Totemic Worship
Types of Clan
Matriclan - Matrilineal clan
Patriclan - Patrilineal clan
The distinction between clan and tribe
Clan is exogamous. Tribe is endogamous.
Clans have no definite language. Tribe have a definite language.
Clans have no definite geographical area. Tribe have definite tertiary.
Problems of the Scheduled Tribes
1) Geographical Separation
2) Social and Cultural Problems
Scattered Settlement
Politically not
Organized
3) Economic Problems
Exploitations
Unprofitable
Agriculture
Problems of Land
Ownership
Unemployment and
Underemployment
Non-Availability of
Banking Facility
4) Educational Problems
Non-Availability of the
modern educational institutions'
Language barriers
5) Medical Facility
The Causes of Tribal Unrest
1. Government Failure
To address them
2. Lack of Accountability of the Government Agencies
The Welfare Ministry
Commissioner for Scheduled
Tribes
National Commission for
Scheduled Tribes
Planning Commission >
NOW > NITI Aayog (lit. 'Policy Commission'; abbreviation for National Institution for Transforming India)
3. Unjust Forest Policy
Lands traditionally owned
and cultivated by the tribe have been branded as “forest land” under the new Forest
policy. As a result, the tribe have become strangers and encroachers in their
land.
4. Losing their Land/ Forest
Land is going to non-tribal
people. (Chotanagpur Tenancy Act, 1908)
Land needs for development
programmes.
5. Absence of Efficient Tribal Leadership
They do not have strong
leadership.
Other leaders only
remember them during the election.
6) Forceful Cultural Imposition
Language and
Religion
Three Views or Approaches to Solve the Tribal
Problems
(1) Policy of Isolation
Proposed by John Henry Hutton (1885-1968), and Verrier Elwin (1902-1964)
John Henry Hutton was a Commissioner of the Census (1929-1933)
They proposed complete non-interference of the British Forces and
withdrawal from the Tribal Area. They called it a ‘National Park’ or
‘Reserved Area.’
He proposed to solve the two problems.
(1) The Tribes would be in a position to maintain their independent
identity. (2) They would be free from exploitation by outsiders.
(2) Policy of Assimilation
Proposed by a Christian Missionary and a Hindu Social Reformer and
Organisation
Meaning of Assimilation by Ogburn and Nimkoff
“Assimilation is the process whereby individuals or groups once dissimilar
become similar and identified in their interests and outlook.”
(3) Policy of Integration
The policy of isolation is neither possible nor desirable, and assimilation
would mean imposition.
Hence, integration alone can make available to the Tribes the benefits of modern
society while retaining their separate identity.
Causes of Social Change in Tribal India
1) Social Stratification
2) Non-Agricultural Occupations
3) Migration
4) Political Awareness and Participation
5) Part of Globalisation
Modern Factors of Tribal Transformation
1) Christianity and Its Missionary Activities
2) Factors of Industrialization and Urbanization
3) Factors of Education
4) Change in the Government's Attitudes towards the Tribe
5) Tribal Elites as Agents of Modernisation
Dangerous Ideas about the Scheduled Tribe, which
is Factually NOT Acceptable
Conflict between the Tribes and the Civilisation
Child Marriage
Homicide (Killing of one person by another)
Animal Sacrifice
Black Magic
Problem of Separatism
Tribal Revolts and Uprisings
The Need for Protection
Reference for Advance / Detail Study
Constitutional Safeguard: https://ncsc.nic.in/constitutional-safeguards
Article 15 of the Indian Constitution
https://indiankanoon.org/doc/609295/
https://www.constitutionofindia.net/articles/article-15-prohibition-of-discrimination-on-grounds-of-religion-race-caste-sex-or-place-of-birth/
राष्ट्रीय अनुसूचित जाति आयोग National Commission for Scheduled Castes Government of India
https://ncsc.nic.in/constitutional-safeguardshttps://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1707576®=3&lang=2
The Gazette of India, June 06, 1936. The Government of India (Scheduled Castes Order, 1936). AT the Court of Buckingham Palace, The 30th day of April 1936
https://socialjustice.gov.in/public/ckeditor/upload/82951673327147.PDF
Article 16
https://indiankanoon.org/doc/211089/
Example of Bias Reporting by the Times of India
https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/quotas-born-with-brits-took-on-life-of-their-own-after-1947/articleshow/63676271.cms
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