Bernard S. Cohn, 1987, An Anthropologist Among Historians and Other Essays, Delhi: OUP
Regions Subjective and Objective: Their Relation to the Study of Modern Indian History and Society (Chapter: 6, Pages: 100-135) (Originally published in 1967)
GE 01 Indian Society: Images and Reality
BA Sociology, University of Delhi
Pg. 100
This paper will look at some methodological and substantive issues.
What is the difference between Method and Methodology?
The methodology is "'a contextual framework' for research, a coherent and logical scheme based on views, beliefs, and values, that guides the choices researchers [or other users] make"
It comprises the theoretical analysis of the body of methods and principles associated with a branch of knowledge such that the methodologies employed from differing disciplines vary depending on their historical development.
This creates a continuum of methodologies that stretch across competing understandings of how knowledge and reality are best understood. This situates methodologies within overarching philosophies and approaches.
Please find here in detail:
www.studywithanil.blogspot.com/2020/12/What-is-the-difference-between-Methods-and-Methodology-Research-Methods-Research-Methodology.htmlThe methodology may be visualized as a spectrum of Quantitative approach and Qualitative approach.
What is different between Quantitative and Qualitative Approaches?
Please find here in detail:
Overall, a methodology does not set out to provide solutions - it is, therefore, not the same as a method. Instead, a methodology offers a theoretical perspective for understanding which method, set of methods, or best practices can be applied to the research question(s) at hand.
So we can say that –
The research methodology is the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information about a topic. In a research paper, the methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study’s overall validity and reliability.
The methodology section answers two main questions: How was the data collected or generated? How was it analyzed? Or; how to be?
The methodology depends on the nature of research. And methods depend on the methodology and types of question to be answered.
The methodology is the philosophical part of the research and
Methods are how to achieve the research goal
Detail separate article is available for more knowledge on
What is the difference between Method and Methodology?
Please find here in detail:
The article is talking about modern India. By modern India author means from the 18th century to current time i.e. 1987, when he wrote this article. This date is important because for us his imagination of Modern India cannot go further at the time of writing this article.
DEAR STUDENTS whenever you are reading any piece of writing you should pay attention to the date of the writing. And for the advance understanding, you should also know the brief biography of the author/ creator and the current socio-political situation of the society. All these are impacting on the writing.
For the author, the regional difference in South Asia is real.
Therefore we use to say about unity in diversity in Asia in general and India in particular.
We have diversity in society in terms of-
Different structure of culture
Features of region
Language structure
Historical identity
Ritual identity
Religious identity
Political orientation
Administration in states, because also have local laws
Modernization
Agriculture
Etc.
Pg. 101
What is a Region: Preliminary Definitions
As Norton Ginsberg, the geographer, remarks, “There is no universally accepted definition of the region, except as it referees to some portion of the surface of the earth.
Most of the definitions of the region consist the natural boundaries, which is denoting the physical region.
But for the social sciences purpose, we not only the physical geographical regions are important but the human geography also matters.
The human or social elements matter because ultimately we are planning for human society. However, during the planning for human society, these days we are also caring about the other components of the environment, like water, river, animal, birds, air, thermal, etc.
The planner must consider these elements.
Therefore the ideas of regions consist of geographical, social, political, iconological, and environmental concern.
Pg. 102
However, whenever we are defining the region we cannot deny the historical and/or cultural problems which engaged most of us. It is clear, however, that although not immediately applicable to our current research interests.
For most of us the conceptualization of region involves basically, linguistic, culture, social structural, and/or the interrelations among definitions as a starting point of our discussions of regions and regionalism in India.
Basis of Regions in India
(Note: This is Applicable to Everywhere not only in India)
1. Historical Regions
A historical region is one in which there are sacred myths and symbols, held by significant groups within the area, regarding entities.
2. Linguistic Region
A linguistic region is one in which there is a shared recognized literary language, the standardized form of which is known and identified by the educated groups within the areas.
Pg. 103
3. Cultural Region
A cultural region is one in which there are widely shared and recognised culture traits and patterned behaviour, particularly among the common people. Descriptively, one or two kinds of behaviour, customs, or traits and taken as diagnostics of regional culture.
God, goddesses, rituals, myths, and festivals are the most frequent diagnostics traits used to establish the ‘reality’ or particular regions.
Apart from god, and goddess the dress, style of the turban, jewellery, agricultural implements, house types, settlement patterns, etc, are basic geographical determinants.
The use of settlement patterns as a major variable for determining a regional culture involves structural features as well.
(Pg. 104)
4. Structural Regions
A structural region is one in which there are a group of associated structural variables which differentiate one structural area from another. >> The attempt to isolate and analyse the social structural variable is the most recent attempt to establish an analytical basis for the regional study. >> This form of regional analysis, of course, is inherent in some of the geographic and cultural attempts to develop a classification of the regions of India. >>
In May ways McKim Marriott’s Caste Ranking and Community Structure in FIVE regions of India and Pakistan is the leading example of this approach.
Structural view of caste and tries to explain the variation –
Pg. 104-105
FOUR major variables which are the determining of the elaboration of caste ranking are
- The number of ethnic groups (sub-caste) in the system
- Degree and acceptance of over inequalities of the groups as defined by attitudes and behaviour
- Development of a consistency consensus among the member of the community as to the ranked groups, and finally
- Need for relative isolation of one local ranking interacting series of groups from others
Also, add these in Marriot’s concept to determine the position in the caste hierarchy
- Amount of land owned by the caste
- Literacy rate of the caste especially girls/ women literacy
- Participation in government job
- Participation in politics
- Political organisation
- Number of castes
- Linguistic power
VIDEO PRESENTATION
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pjQyBF2gwjQ
Above video [3:45] is an example of language, culture and regional pride.
Pg. 105
What is region: Discussion
The region can be defined on the basis of-
Linguistic Geographical area (Pg. 106-108), and
Historical Geographical area (Pg. 108-113)
Pg. 113
Problems in the Establishment of Cultural Region
There is a problem of establishing cultural areas.
This effort largely grew out of attempts to order museum collections in some sort of rational fashion with some regards to the cultural context of the material object.
- Methodological and theoretical interests
o From which perspective or evidence you will define the culture?
§ Textual evidence – (little tradition great tradition)
§ Oral tradition – do they have no history?
§ Archaeological evidence
· Which should be given more weight textual or archaeological -
- History of societies and cultures
o Who wrote history is equally important to know what is history?
§ For example, Romila Thapar wrote a book on central India in which she did not mention other kings but not the Adiwasi Kings.
§ For Example, Hemant Soren, (JMM CM 29.12.2019- continued) Jharkhand withdraw the sedition charge from 20 people who were charged with the sedition during the Raghubar Das (BJP CM 28.12.2014 – 29.12.2019) tenure.
§ In future maybe some historians will visit/think over this incident of the so-called sedition. Then their assessment will be more dependent on their way of thinking, thoughts and political association then the facts itself. As you have just seen above that the same incident was a case of sedition for one CM however that act was not the case of sedition for the other CM of Jharkhand.
o Another problem with history is that how we should see the phenomenon, where history is not written? Means where history is in the oral tradition. Should we not consider them a part of history just because they were not literate?
o And what is culture?
§ This is possible that the same things many consider cultural good in one society, may not be the culture in another society.
· For example, the right to choice of the life partner/ marriage
o The same case – is love for one society, and love-jihad for another society or it is sin, or that is a simple crime even a couple is from the same faith (religion).
o Therefore the social thoughts are coming from the both – a political affiliation and the social affiliation or the member of the society.
o Sometimes this may result of the Honour Killing, however, for modern society, this is the personal matter and not a subject matter of the social comment.
DEAR STUDENTS, please read this book to understand WHAT IS HISTORY and how the perspectives of history are important. This book is equally important for students of Sociology, Political Science, History and Literature from different perspectives. This book is recommended for every student of higher education in universities. (This is only advice not mandatory.)
Book: What is History, by E. H. Carr (1961), English
Book: इतिहास क्या है, द्वारा ई. एच. कार, (1961), हिन्दी
FIND THIS BOOK HERE (English) https://amzn.to/38GbzWk
FIND THIS BOOK HERE (Hindi) https://amzn.to/3aR5clX
VIDEO PRESENTATION
DEAR STUDENTS, you may listen to one of the sedition accused Mukti Tirky on Sedition Charge, to understand the above example of perspectives of nationalism and sedition.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XESWdY7_mj0
Pg. 114
Bernard S. Cohn has discussed 10 different types of civilisation in India on the basis of languages, discussed in the book “History of India: The Hindu and Mohomentan Periods' ' by Mountsturat Elphinstone.
Pg. 114-115
Later in the nineteenth century, and into the twentieth century, concerns about racial classification tended to supplant overriding interests in cultural-regional classifications.
H. H. Risley (Born: 04.01.1851, Death: 30.09.1911) who was British Civil Administrator and Founder of Systematic Anthropology in India come with “Discussing anthropological perspectives of the cultural region”
He classified Indian culture regions on the basis of racial differences. He has said that India has a block of people which different racial shapes like the shape of nose, head-shape and other measures. > These physical shape is also defining the territorial shape/ blocks in India. > Hence the language and linguistic region. > E.g. Turko-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Aryo-Dravidian linguistic regions.
He was not only concerned about the racial classification of the Indian population but also about writing racial Indian history.
1931 Indian Census under J. H. Hutton, and distinguished physical anthropologist B. S. Guha, has persisted in the research of D. N. Majumdar.
Guha and Majumdar too tried classified, understanding and writing > Indian history and explained > Indian culture, and classified it > on the basis of > Indian linguistic region > on the basis of racial identity > based on the blood groups data.
BOOK: You may read Book “Caste in India its Nature Function and Origins” (1946/ 1969) by J. H. Hutton, here online
https://www.indianculture.gov.in/caste-india-its-nature-function-and-origins
(John Henry Hutton, popularly known as JH Hutton, born on 27 June 1885 and died on 23 May 1968)
Pg. 116
Aborigines or Tribals > they may represent different racial strains then most of the rest of the population > Such a statement tells little about the culture.
Material Cultural Zones in India
Most extensive and systematic survey on material culture carried out by the Department of Anthropology, Government of India, under the direction of Surjit Singh, and N. K. Bose. Nirmal Kumar Bose (22 January 1901 – 15 October 1972)
The objective of the Material Survey
- Drawing up maps of zones and subzones of selected material traits which appear to have persisted over long historic periods.
- This will provide a broad sweep, a comparable picture for the major cultural regions of India and will thus provide the background for a detailed study of cultural progress in the future.
For fulfilling the above objective
>> Systematic data from every district in India were collected and plotted on maps for the following items of material culture-
- Item of (or part of) material culture collected –
o Village settlement pattern 1>2>3>4>
o Types of cottage
o Staple diet (meaning) >> A staple food, food staple, or simply a staple, is a food that is eaten routinely and in such quantities that it constitutes a dominant portion of a standard diet for a given people, supplying a large fraction of energy needs and generally forming a significant proportion of the intake of other nutrients as well.
o Kinds of fats and oil
o Kinds of oil presses >>
o Types of ploughs
o Types of husking implements (छिलका या भूसा निकालना)
o Men’s dress
o Women’s dress
o Foot gear = Footwear
o Bullock cart
N. K. Bose in his introductory section to the study sees these eleven different traits ground into very broad patterns, in different parts of India.
Pg. 116 – 117
Socio-Geographical division on these grounds can be found from page No. 116 to 119
These are
1. Forms of Village
2. Types of Cottage: Roof and Ground Plan
3. Types of Cottage: Courtyard (आँगन) and Parlour (बैठक खाना)
4. Types of Cottage: Distribution of Courtyard
5. Staple Diet
6. Fats and Oil
7. Oil Presses
8. Types of Ploughs (हल)
9. Housing Implements
10. Men’s Dress, Lower Garments
11. Women’s Dress: Sewn and Unsewn Garments
12. Food Gear: Sandals Other than Wooden
13. Bullock Carts: Types of Wheel
14. Bullock Carts: Size of the Wheel
Pg. 119
WESTERNIZATION, MODERNIZATION, AND REGIONALISM
Regionalism refers usually to conscious or unconscious development of symbols, behaviours, and movement which will mark off groups within some geographic boundary from others in other regions for political, economic, or cultural ends.
The geographer V. L. S. Prakasa Rao points out that there are cycles of regionalism.
The cycle begins with the revival of poetry and language and ends with plans for the economic invigoration of the regional agricultural industry, with proposals for more autonomous political life.
Invigoration = give strength or energy to.
For Rao, regionalism had different ends in different countries in Europe.
France: Regionalism means a protest against over-centralisation of culture in Paris. Aim: Free development of culture and local talent.
Germany: Preconisation of old state boundaries.
The Berlin Wall was a guarded concrete barrier that physically and ideologically divided Berlin from 1961 to 1989. Construction of the wall was commenced by the German Democratic Republic on 13 August 1961. The demolition of the Wall officially began on 13 June 1990 and was completed in November 1991. The "fall of the Berlin Wall" paved the way for German reunification, which formally took place on 3 October 1990.
Britain: Regionalism means administrative development and a new framework for local government.
Denmark: Scientific Agriculture
India: The cycle of modernization begins with modernization and westernisation
What is modernization?
What is westernization?
Pg. 120
THE STRUCTURAL AND CULTURAL PREREQUISITES OF INDIAN REGIONALISM
Pg. 120-123
1. A Symbol Pool प्रतीक
First prerequisites of regionalism are a pool of symbols, to form the content of ideas around it.
In India, it is drawn from the symbol of -
Religion, literary person, historical identity, linguistic identity
(All above are kind of shared common identities)
What is the MEANING of shared identity?
(In book) Explained with Example of - Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra
Interesting Example: Assertion of Regional Identity
Battle and assertion for Geographical Indicator (GI) Tag of Rasagola vs Rosogolla are interesting that how people are even fighting for GI Tag. Finally, GI Tag is granted to Odisha for Odisha Rasgulla over West Bengal’s Rosogolla
Pg. 120-121 Tamil Nadu
Tamil Nadu > well-developed hierarchy
For Tamil Scholars > India is divided into five natural regions on the basis of geographical characteristics
Poetic Imaginations > associated with a particular sect of the people
The internal boundaries of Tamil Nadu were never fixed. It is in literature and the sacred geography in the culture of the ordinary people that a distinctive and fixed set of ideas of internal regions development.
Ø Shiva – Vaishnavite – Buddhism – Jainism
Ø Four great Saivite Sant and Twelve Alwars travelled and mark the land
What is Alwars or Alvarkal?
The Alwars or Alvarkal were Tamil poet-saints of South India who espoused bhakti to the Hindu god Vishnu or his avatar Krishna in their songs of longing, ecstasy and service. They are venerated especially in Vaishnavism, which regards Vishnu or Krishna as the Supreme Being.
Pg. 121-122 Maharashtra
Historical Political Tradition
M. G. Ranade (Mahadev Govind Ranade was an Indian scholar, social reformer, judge and author. He was one of the founding members of the Indian National Congress Party, Member of the Bombay Legislative Council, Member of the Finance Committee at the centre, and Judge of the Bombay High Court, Maharashtra 18 January 1842 to 16 January 1901
Mahadev Govind Rao Bahadur Ranade
He was first who present the argued for unique Maratha identity in his book “Rise of Maratha Power” (1900)
FIND THIS BOOK HERE https://amzn.to/3mYLTcU
In his book, he argued that Maharashtra was more than the expression of Shivaji’s genius and the ability of Maharashtra as freebooters.
Pg. 122
He emphasised on Bhakti/ Religious Movement of Maharashtra which bound people of Maharashtra together.
Bengali historian Sir Jadunath Sarkar saw the religious-literary movement as crucial to farming the ideology of the Maratha states. He makes the Marathas sound like an Indian version of the English Puritans
Pg. 123
Anthropologist Irawati Karve too has said that Maharashtra is a cultural region. On the basis of 1) languages and dialects, 2) family, marriage, and kinship system, 3) dress, utensils, and food preparation, and 4) common Saints, common stories, and common Songs.
Irawati Karve was an anthropologist, sociologist, educationalist, and writer from Maharashtra who born in Chitpavan Brahmin family. Born: 15.12.1905, Died: 11.08.1970.
Universal taboo = Prohibition of marriage or sexual relation between mother and son, dither and father, and sister and brother.
Pg. 123
2. Selection, Standardization, and Transmission of Symbols
The second prerequisite for the establishment and maintenance of regionalism is a means of selection, standardization, and transmission of symbols from the symbol pool.
Great or Little Tradition and Sanskritization
Who gave the theory of Little Tradition and Great Tradition: Robert Redfield
Who gave the theory of Sanskritization: M. N. Srinivas
Pg. 124
Religion, culture, literature, historical, does not just happen as a pool of symbols but is the result of complex forces.
Other forces are political, government, social movements etc.
British rule too established some preconditions of national identities, such as
Printing machine, which-
Promoted vernacular language identities
Speed up the circulation of ideas
Promoted literary societies
Calcutta School Book Society (pg 125)
Pg. 125
Promoted English Education
Promoted new knowledge and western ideas
But after the 19th-century western educated people, especially from Bengal and Bombay were turning away from their identification with Western values and ideas.
Their endeavour was to find cultural superiority in Indian civilisation.
FORME the article is only presenting one side of view. Great leaders like Nehru, Ambedkar, Lohia etc were inspired by the western ideas and brought many changes in India accordingly.
Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Ganesh Puja
For author Bernard S Cohn, Tilak was Nationalist in the real sense
He along with an orthodox Brahman Annasahib organised a ten-day public festival of Ganesh Puja.
The manifest reason for the celebrations was to prevent lower-caste Hindus from participating in the Mohurram festival of the Muslim as had been the custom up until this time.
KNOW MORE: Who gave the theory of – Manifest Function, Latent Function, Dysfunction: Answer: Bronislaw Malinoski (1922)
Name of Newspaper by Bal Gangadhar Tilak – Kesari
Tilak in his newspaper Kesri made it clear that through hero-worship of Shivaji is the ideal of Maratha self-rule and the glorification of Maharashtra would be reborn.
Here Tilak pool symbols from religion/ belief (Ganesh), and history (Shivaji)
Other movements were Andhra Movement and AdiDwavid Movement
DEAR STUDENTS: The author Bernard S. Cohn has portrayed a very wrong picture of Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Please read BOOK “Foundations of Tilak’s Nationalism: Discrimination, Education, and Hindutva, Orient BlackSwan, New Delhi, 2010, paperback 2011, by Parimala V Rao to have authentic knowledge about Bal Gangadhar Tilak and his other associates and contemporary.
FIND THIS BOOK HERE: https://amzn.to/3o5d3jq
Pg. 126 – 127
3. Establishment of Regional Elites
British rule established the conditions for change or redefinitions in Indian cultural systems. British also brought conditions for structural change in Indian society. Via All India Educational, and Administrative Services
Apart from many other kinds of the elite because of the British government National Elite and Nationalist Elites (freedom fighters)
Kinds of Elite
Elites can become from many fields, like business, literature, politics, etc, but all are making hierarchy and pyramid shape in the society
Pg. 128
Base of Elite
It can be on the basis of Achieved Status or Ascribed Status also
- Bhadralok Bangali
- Chitpawan of Maharashtra
- Tamil Brahmin
- Gujrati Patidar
- Parsi of Bombay
- Nayars of Malabar
The Oudh Talukdar was made elite by the British because they wanted to do so.
British made them elite by Oudh settlement in 1859.
Who was Talukdar?
They were whose name was listed in the or whose ancestor was listed in the official list of Talukdar.
Even the British tried to establish educational institutions to create new elites through some posts like Talukdar and also English Gentleman.
Pg. 129
The British Education and All India Civil Services were provided new leadership in India. Because of these new elites, India had anti-Brahmin movement in Maharashtra and non-Brahmin movement in Tamil Nadu
Now India had (traditional) Elite and Counter Elite (or New Elite)
Pg. 129-130
Congress under the leadership of Gandhi Ji glorified vernacular and regional culture and nationalism began to develop a regional flavour.
Pg. 130
Countervailing Process to Regional Identity and Regionalism
Countervailing
Meaning: offset the effect of (something) by countering it with something of equal force.
Use in sentence: "stereotypes are countervailed by more realistic assessments"
Meaning In Hindi: प्रतिकारी
Not only in India but in most parts of the world anthropologist’s tend to see the tribe or village they have studied as the key region, and the process and phenomenon occurring in the particular region at the particular time with which they have been concerned as central to all of modern history.
The current academic style of reading history is that historians understand history from the present context.
For India, the reason and regionalisms are important to understand Indian society and history.
Pg. 131
Like any society the Indian society too has the importance of the symbol to unite on the basis of commonality.
There is a pool of traditional Indian symbols, certainly Hindu symbols, which have been standardized through the nationalist movement and the emergence of an Indian nation-state.
The regional culture and style were eroded and national culture established in the country rapidly because of –
Pan Indian language like- Hindi, English, Sanskrit, Persian, Urdu
(Note: author Bernard S. Cohn did not mention the Hindi)
National administration by Mughal Empire
Subcontinent-wide educational institutions, Madrasas, Pathshallas, Universities
Overseas travel for higher education was for a time their identity was as an Indian, not as Tamilians or Bangalis
Indian movies/ films
Indian newspaper and weekly like ‘The Illustrated Weekly of India’
The emergence of urban modern lifestyle
Etc. ...
Pg. 132
Author Bernard S. Chon in his chapter “Regions Subjective and Objective Their Retaliation to the Study of Modern Indian History” in his book “An Anthropologist Among Historian and Other Essays” (1987), summarise his with these sentences –
Regions are far from fixed, enduring things, especially if any historical perspective is taken. They are not absolutes and they are difficult, if not impossible, to define by objective criteria. Where one stands and for what purpose the unit one is studying. For many purposes a region, which can be defined in a relative fashion for other purposes a village, a city, or the civilization make the relative important unit to be studied. The study of region and regionalism become so important for India and Indian culture. The phenomenon of regionalism, no matter how we define it, exists through time and we must constantly be aware of the danger of reifying what might be a set of contingent choices by some individual or groups within the society we are studying and of elevating the contingent choice into an absolute.
Students are advised to read the original text also along with this lecture.
Find and read the original text here:
www.studywithanil.blogspot.com/2020/11/Indian-Society-Images-and-Reality-Bachelor-of-Arts-Honours-Sociology-University-of-Delhi.htmlAnil Kumar | Student of Life World
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