Lecture: The Varieties of Secular Experience, Essays in the Social History of Modern India, Ravinder Kumar, 1983
Keywords: British Government, Hinduism, Islam, Liberal Plural Theory of Secularism, Maurya Empire, Mughal Empire, Orthodox Plural Theory of Secularism, Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz, Secularism, Society in India, Ali Anwar
University of Delhi
Bachelor of Arts
Sociology of India
Reading to be covered: Kumar, Ravinder, 1983, The Varieties of Secular Experience, in Essays in the Social History of Modern India, Oxford University Press, Delhi 31-46
Course Structure
Important points to be kept in mind while studying the article
Expected outcome
Lecture in detail with comment and clarification
Introduction
What is Hinduism?
Unity of Hindu Structure of Hindu Intellectual
Verna and Jati System: Is this Social or Economic System
Theory of Self Sufficiency of the Village
Pasmanda Muslim or Backward Caste Muslim
Liberal Plural Theory of Secularism in India
The Orthodox Plural Theory of Secularism in India
Important points to be kept in mind while studying the article
What is the meaning of secular and religious? What is the new debate of secularism? How the debate of secularism is link with caste, religion and ideology.
Expected outcome
Students will be able to understand the history, idea and debate of the secularism in India.
Introduction
31. This article is about the debate of secularism in India.
We have two terminologies ‘secular’ and ‘religious’. The article is exploring the relationship between religious belief and political commitment, on the one hand, and the public and private spheres of social action, on the other.
Keywords: British Government, Hinduism, Islam, Liberal Plural Theory of Secularism, Maurya Empire, Mughal Empire, Orthodox Plural Theory of Secularism, Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz, Secularism, Society in India, Ali Anwar
University of Delhi
Bachelor of Arts
Sociology of India
Reading to be covered: Kumar, Ravinder, 1983, The Varieties of Secular Experience, in Essays in the Social History of Modern India, Oxford University Press, Delhi 31-46
Course Structure
Important points to be kept in mind while studying the article
Expected outcome
Lecture in detail with comment and clarification
Introduction
What is Hinduism?
Unity of Hindu Structure of Hindu Intellectual
Verna and Jati System: Is this Social or Economic System
Theory of Self Sufficiency of the Village
Pasmanda Muslim or Backward Caste Muslim
Liberal Plural Theory of Secularism in India
The Orthodox Plural Theory of Secularism in India
Important points to be kept in mind while studying the article
What is the meaning of secular and religious? What is the new debate of secularism? How the debate of secularism is link with caste, religion and ideology.
Expected outcome
Students will be able to understand the history, idea and debate of the secularism in India.
Introduction
31. This article is about the debate of secularism in India.
We have two terminologies ‘secular’ and ‘religious’. The article is exploring the relationship between religious belief and political commitment, on the one hand, and the public and private spheres of social action, on the other.
However, the biggest question is what is secularism, in the Indian context?
We have many varieties of secularism, secularism in social life, secularism in political life.
The term secularism means a secular society is one in which religion particularly organised religion, has been completely displaced from the public arenas of social action and relegated to the sphere of personal belief and private commitment.
However, in practice, we cannot implement the above definitions in our life.
In practice, polities which regard themselves as secular, as distinct from political which are professedly theocratic in their character, exhibit considered varied in their attitude toward is religion and religious phenomenon.
32. In India, we have a very close relationship between religion and politics. Both are affection each other. At the one hand, politics is undermining the religious values also seek the values in the society which is coming from the religion, and on the other hand, this dilemma making difficult to make institutional value neutrality.
The brief review of secularism is saying that as ideally it conceived and as it obtained in practices, enables us to take a critical look at the significance of this term for a society like India’s, with its complex social organisation.
Religion is prevailing in Indian politics and political mobilization because of the nature and structure of society. The common people have faith in the religion and they often get mobilized by the religion. Therefore the relation between politics and religion is very obvious and natural.
Whenever we have a debate on religion and secularism we are limiting ourselves between only two religions, namely Hindu and Muslim.
What is Hinduism?
According to the author, Hinduism is a religious ideology which embraces a variety of Jati, sects, order, denominations, populist movements and animistic cults, without any sharp institutional focus.
33. The essential of Hindi belief and practice are to be found in a relatively small number of philosophical and sacerdotal text.
Unity of Hindu Structure of Hindu Intellectual
According to the author the unity in Hinduism structural rather than in the intellectual identity of the social groups which thrive under its dispensation. It means that Hindus have unity because all are coming from the same belief not because they have unity in society.
The Verna and Jati system give the unique characteristics of the Hindu religion. The social, economic, and political life is moving around these Hindu characteristics.
34. We can still say that the values and institutions of Hindu society as a feudal society, in the most extended sense of the term.
Verna and Jati System: Is this Social or Economic System
For some, the Varna and Jati system is not a social system rather a system of economic relations. They organize to run an agricultural system. And for Karl Marx, these economic relations are determining the social relationship.
The Hindu society is not only deepening our understanding of its social character between the material and the ideal factors as determinates of the social order, although we do not prose to linger over this question in the present context.
Basically the Hindi society is organized for the agricultural village society.
The village relationship like landowner, farmer, labour, different kinds of service providers is living together. They have also relationship like share-croppers.
The division of caste is also a division of labour, therefore all caste is providing the different types of services. These different types of services are keeping village life alive.
Theory of Self Sufficiency of the Village
PAY ATTENTION: SELF SUFFICIENT OF VILLAGE: The second paragraph of page No. 34 is saying that the village was a SELF-SUFFICIENT, the author is saying about SELF-SUFFICIENCY of the economic activity. THE THEORY OF SELF-SUFFICIENCY OF THE VILLAGE IS ALREADY REJECTED. It was Mahatma Gandhi who popularized this terminology in India.
35. The village also maintaining the local administration through the caste Panchayat. However, now this is institutionalized by the government through the Panchayati Raj Act. But this is not new, from the Mauryan, the Mughal, and the British were also tried to institutionalize the local village administration.
The local market gives space for surplus agricultural surplus and also goods for the villagers.
36. The relation between the village and nearby small town (in Hindi Cusbah) is establishing by the market. The nearby small town is attracting the surplus production of the village through the mechanism of the market. Therefore through the market mechanism, local small businessman (in Hindi Sowcar / Sahukar) of the nearby small town is connected with the farmers.
Local bureaucrats are also living in the nearby small town of the village. Sometimes they have revelry for the power share. Bureaucrats are trying to establish direct contact with the farmers to eliminate the power of local landlords (in Hindi Zamindar or Jamindar).
ATTENTION: PLEASE NOTE: This article has written during the 1980s and this is only reflecting the Indian realities of about 1970s. Whatever described in Page No. 36 is no more existing right now. Those realities become part of history.
37. The author is analyzing the social structure of Hindi and Muslim. They also give a brief account of how Islam came in India.
38. The author analyzed Islam and Muslim on the basis of a text which is already rejected now. The social structure of Islam and Muslim in India is very similar to the Hindu society. They too have the same caste hierarchy just like among Hindus. However, theologically Islam does not believe in such hierarchies because Prophet Sahab preaches against these hierarchies in society. The Quran does not permit this practice. But this is existing in the practice among Islam.
Pasmanda Muslim or Backward Caste Muslim
ATTENTION: THIS IS OUTDATED ARTICLE: To know more caste among Muslim in India please read the book “PASMANDA” by Ali Anwar. ALSO, try to search on internet “Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz” led by Ali Anwar.
39. British devised a more centralized system of administration than had been devised by any of their predecessors. In their initial administrative arrangement in India, the British lacked the political self-confidence to dispossess the superior zamindars.
40. The British government created a central administrative system which makes a huge impact on Indian in the context of revenue collection, law and order, and administrative reform.
The extension of economic horizons in India under the British aegis was closely associated with an extension of social and intellectual horizons.
The letter transformation has been spelt out in a rich literature dealing with the impact of western ideas upon the Hindu and Muslim intelligentsia and their consequent attempts to recast their own intellectual traditions or to adopt novel values, with the objective of promoting the welfare of the community.
41. As a result of these changes, the social consciousness of the individual began to outgrow the worlds of jati (caste) and varna (class of caste hierarchy), though it may not be easy to present concrete evidence in support of so subtle a social transformation.
42. Putting light on secularism before and after 1947 will help us to understand what kind of politics we have.
Liberal Plural Theory of Secularism in India
The first theory is the liberal plural theory which was advanced by the moderate nationalist in the closing decades of the nineteenth century. It means religion ought to be divorced from politics and relegated to the sphere of private belief and commitment. If such a state of affair was attained, and then even in a multi-religious country try like India individuals owing allegiance to different religious would face no difficulty in extending their loyalty to the nation.
The liberal plural theory of social action was elegantly couched in the idiom of modern politics. But as an ideology of nationalism, it suffered from some fatal flaws. Only the upper-middle classes and the westernized intelligentsia possessed the sort of education that enables them to respond positively to such an ideology. Inevitably, therefore, the liberal plural theory becomes the ideology of the upper-middle classes and was unable to gain acceptability among wider social circles.
The Orthodox Plural Theory of Secularism in India
The orthodox plural theory of secular nationalism first enunciated as an integral whole by Gandhi. While the moderate nationalist tried to relegate religion to the sphere of private belief, Gandhi deliberately picked upon religion as the basis for political action and national identity.
(Students are advised to read the page No. 42 to 46 carefully to understand the role of Gandhi in secularism)
However, if you need a summary for these pages also please let me know in the comment section here.
Anil Kumar, PhD Student of Social Sciences
We have many varieties of secularism, secularism in social life, secularism in political life.
The term secularism means a secular society is one in which religion particularly organised religion, has been completely displaced from the public arenas of social action and relegated to the sphere of personal belief and private commitment.
However, in practice, we cannot implement the above definitions in our life.
In practice, polities which regard themselves as secular, as distinct from political which are professedly theocratic in their character, exhibit considered varied in their attitude toward is religion and religious phenomenon.
32. In India, we have a very close relationship between religion and politics. Both are affection each other. At the one hand, politics is undermining the religious values also seek the values in the society which is coming from the religion, and on the other hand, this dilemma making difficult to make institutional value neutrality.
The brief review of secularism is saying that as ideally it conceived and as it obtained in practices, enables us to take a critical look at the significance of this term for a society like India’s, with its complex social organisation.
Religion is prevailing in Indian politics and political mobilization because of the nature and structure of society. The common people have faith in the religion and they often get mobilized by the religion. Therefore the relation between politics and religion is very obvious and natural.
Whenever we have a debate on religion and secularism we are limiting ourselves between only two religions, namely Hindu and Muslim.
What is Hinduism?
According to the author, Hinduism is a religious ideology which embraces a variety of Jati, sects, order, denominations, populist movements and animistic cults, without any sharp institutional focus.
33. The essential of Hindi belief and practice are to be found in a relatively small number of philosophical and sacerdotal text.
Unity of Hindu Structure of Hindu Intellectual
According to the author the unity in Hinduism structural rather than in the intellectual identity of the social groups which thrive under its dispensation. It means that Hindus have unity because all are coming from the same belief not because they have unity in society.
The Verna and Jati system give the unique characteristics of the Hindu religion. The social, economic, and political life is moving around these Hindu characteristics.
34. We can still say that the values and institutions of Hindu society as a feudal society, in the most extended sense of the term.
Verna and Jati System: Is this Social or Economic System
For some, the Varna and Jati system is not a social system rather a system of economic relations. They organize to run an agricultural system. And for Karl Marx, these economic relations are determining the social relationship.
The Hindu society is not only deepening our understanding of its social character between the material and the ideal factors as determinates of the social order, although we do not prose to linger over this question in the present context.
Basically the Hindi society is organized for the agricultural village society.
The village relationship like landowner, farmer, labour, different kinds of service providers is living together. They have also relationship like share-croppers.
The division of caste is also a division of labour, therefore all caste is providing the different types of services. These different types of services are keeping village life alive.
Theory of Self Sufficiency of the Village
PAY ATTENTION: SELF SUFFICIENT OF VILLAGE: The second paragraph of page No. 34 is saying that the village was a SELF-SUFFICIENT, the author is saying about SELF-SUFFICIENCY of the economic activity. THE THEORY OF SELF-SUFFICIENCY OF THE VILLAGE IS ALREADY REJECTED. It was Mahatma Gandhi who popularized this terminology in India.
35. The village also maintaining the local administration through the caste Panchayat. However, now this is institutionalized by the government through the Panchayati Raj Act. But this is not new, from the Mauryan, the Mughal, and the British were also tried to institutionalize the local village administration.
The local market gives space for surplus agricultural surplus and also goods for the villagers.
36. The relation between the village and nearby small town (in Hindi Cusbah) is establishing by the market. The nearby small town is attracting the surplus production of the village through the mechanism of the market. Therefore through the market mechanism, local small businessman (in Hindi Sowcar / Sahukar) of the nearby small town is connected with the farmers.
Local bureaucrats are also living in the nearby small town of the village. Sometimes they have revelry for the power share. Bureaucrats are trying to establish direct contact with the farmers to eliminate the power of local landlords (in Hindi Zamindar or Jamindar).
ATTENTION: PLEASE NOTE: This article has written during the 1980s and this is only reflecting the Indian realities of about 1970s. Whatever described in Page No. 36 is no more existing right now. Those realities become part of history.
37. The author is analyzing the social structure of Hindi and Muslim. They also give a brief account of how Islam came in India.
38. The author analyzed Islam and Muslim on the basis of a text which is already rejected now. The social structure of Islam and Muslim in India is very similar to the Hindu society. They too have the same caste hierarchy just like among Hindus. However, theologically Islam does not believe in such hierarchies because Prophet Sahab preaches against these hierarchies in society. The Quran does not permit this practice. But this is existing in the practice among Islam.
Pasmanda Muslim or Backward Caste Muslim
ATTENTION: THIS IS OUTDATED ARTICLE: To know more caste among Muslim in India please read the book “PASMANDA” by Ali Anwar. ALSO, try to search on internet “Pasmanda Muslim Mahaz” led by Ali Anwar.
39. British devised a more centralized system of administration than had been devised by any of their predecessors. In their initial administrative arrangement in India, the British lacked the political self-confidence to dispossess the superior zamindars.
40. The British government created a central administrative system which makes a huge impact on Indian in the context of revenue collection, law and order, and administrative reform.
The extension of economic horizons in India under the British aegis was closely associated with an extension of social and intellectual horizons.
The letter transformation has been spelt out in a rich literature dealing with the impact of western ideas upon the Hindu and Muslim intelligentsia and their consequent attempts to recast their own intellectual traditions or to adopt novel values, with the objective of promoting the welfare of the community.
41. As a result of these changes, the social consciousness of the individual began to outgrow the worlds of jati (caste) and varna (class of caste hierarchy), though it may not be easy to present concrete evidence in support of so subtle a social transformation.
42. Putting light on secularism before and after 1947 will help us to understand what kind of politics we have.
Liberal Plural Theory of Secularism in India
The first theory is the liberal plural theory which was advanced by the moderate nationalist in the closing decades of the nineteenth century. It means religion ought to be divorced from politics and relegated to the sphere of private belief and commitment. If such a state of affair was attained, and then even in a multi-religious country try like India individuals owing allegiance to different religious would face no difficulty in extending their loyalty to the nation.
The liberal plural theory of social action was elegantly couched in the idiom of modern politics. But as an ideology of nationalism, it suffered from some fatal flaws. Only the upper-middle classes and the westernized intelligentsia possessed the sort of education that enables them to respond positively to such an ideology. Inevitably, therefore, the liberal plural theory becomes the ideology of the upper-middle classes and was unable to gain acceptability among wider social circles.
The Orthodox Plural Theory of Secularism in India
The orthodox plural theory of secular nationalism first enunciated as an integral whole by Gandhi. While the moderate nationalist tried to relegate religion to the sphere of private belief, Gandhi deliberately picked upon religion as the basis for political action and national identity.
(Students are advised to read the page No. 42 to 46 carefully to understand the role of Gandhi in secularism)
However, if you need a summary for these pages also please let me know in the comment section here.
Anil Kumar, PhD Student of Social Sciences
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